1. How widespread was the Golem - was it a widely adopted practice for communities to make Golems, or are these stories about the Golem largely apocryphal?
First, I'll give a very quick initial answer to the question - stories about making Golems are abundant in Jewish and, later, non-Jewish sources. From the Torah to the Talmud through to the Middle Ages and the 21st century, the Golem is an incredibly well known and well-traveled story. I did not come across any sociological or anthropological evidence suggesting that communities regularly engaged in Golem-making (i.e. no archaeological digs revealing ancient Golems, for instance), but I found plenty of tales about the Golem that speak to its importance as a symbolic figure. It's not that I found an answer to prove or disprove my question, but more likely that I just worded it slightly wrong.
Golems are ancient, abundant and enduring as a powerful metaphor for issues of power, defenselessness, the anxiety brought on my technology and the modern world, and Man's relation to the Divine. The concept of the Golem has its origins in the Tanakh, specifically Psalms 139:16 (1):
The root from which we derive the word "Golem" is ג.ל.מ, which appears in this passage as a contraction meaning "my unformed substance" - Galmi (גלמי) or "Golem sheli" (גלם שלי). The word we use today, "Golem," comes from this root referring to an unformed substance, and the process of creating a Golem referred to creating a human-like being from such a substance. From there, when Jewish sages partook in the act of making Golems, at least in the early days, the process actually referred to the act of divine Creation they were seeking to emulate. Indeed, an important distinction is that a Golem is considered "unformed" in that it doesn't possess a soul or the capacity for independent will, and so the act of Golem making was not seen to be on the same spiritual level as the "capital C" Creation reserved for G-d. (1)
16. Your eyes saw my unformed body, and on Your book they were all written; days have been formed and one of them is His. טזגָּלְמִי | רָאוּ עֵינֶיךָ וְעַל סִפְרְךָ כֻּלָּם יִכָּתֵבוּ יָמִים יֻצָּרוּ וְלוֹ (כתיב וְלֹא) אֶחָד בָּהֶם:
Throughout history, the underlying purpose for creating a Golem, and thus the metaphorical role the Golem has played in communal folklore, has changed somewhat. The view of a Golem and the act of its creation as having an essentially religious and mystical foundation, however, has seemed to stay relatively consistent. Jewish sages drew on the writings of the kabbalistic "Book of Creation" (Sefer Yetzirah) as their instructional manual for creating a Golem. The act of creating a Golem was considered to be so deeply spiritual, in fact, that it was believed that only those scholars who were sufficiently learned and spiritually pure were qualified enough to attempt it. (2)
Until about the 12th Century C.E., Golem-making was seen largely as a mystical journey unto itself and seems to have been more of a meditative, spiritual experience. (3) It could be said that the experience, the attempt to approach the Divine in the ability to create, was the end in itself - as opposed to the making of an actual quasi-human. A shift appears to happen around the 12th Century C.E., though, in which tales emerge of Jewish communities in Spain making Golems who helped with household tasks. This is, it seems, the first transition in the conception of the Golem from being a purely metaphorical concept into the physical result of a mystical process. (4)
This transition went a step further several centuries later, when Golem tales took on a slightly more perilous element. Not only were Golems created for the purpose of helping humans with tasks, in some Golem tales they now possessed the capacity to grow larger each day and to ultimately overpower their masters, wreaking havoc and destruction in their wake. (5) I'd like to make a brief note here that this appears to be, at least from what I could gather, one of the earlier examples of where Golem stories seem to take two slightly divergent branches - in the first branch (what I'll call Type 1), the emphasis rests on the Golem as a protective force, although it does possess the tendency towards chaos. This type of story seems to be more common among Jewish sources, compared to what I'd call the second branch or Type 2, where the Golem not only tends to become more powerful than its creator but is a more destructive, violent force. From my reading it seems that Type 1 Golem stories were more common within Jewish communities, and that the story morphed once it moved beyond the boundaries of Jewish communities to contain the tendency towards violence and destruction seen in Type 2.
If you're looking into examples of these Types of stories, I'd recommend the following as examples: (6)
Туре 1
- Ibn Gavirol - 12th Century Spain
- Rabbi Eleazar of Worms
- Rabbi Elijah of Chelm - 16th Century Eastern Europe
- Rabbi Judah Loew ben Betzalel- the Maharal and Golem of Prague - 16th century
- Rabbi Yudl Rosenberg - 19th Century Poland
- Jakob Grimm's translation of the Golem story into German - 18th Century Germany
- Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (You're probably thinking "Wait, what??!?"I know, but don't worry. I'll explain.)
2. How did this change of perspective on/approach to self-defense - from one in which Jews made an instrument of protection with their hands to one in which Jews physically took their protection into their own hands - intersect with changing ideas of Jewish destiny and the nature of the world?
I'm still searching for an exact quotation linking my rabbi's anecdote about the Israel Defense Forces as the "new Golem" of the Jewish people to David Ben Gurion, Chaim Weizmann, Golda Meir or any other such figure in Israeli history. There may not be one that I can easily find.
But that's okay - the idea itself is still compelling. After all, this whole topic is about folklore, so perhaps it's fitting that this anecdote is part of the modern folklore of the Jewish people - perhaps not attributable to a specific person but illustrative of the sentiments of a given era. Golems have existed for centuries as mythical protective figures in Jewish lore, created by Jews to meet the external threats against them. The IDF, too, you could say, was created by the Jews to defend themselves against the new external threats of a modern world and a tough neighborhood.
Second, in the course of researching this topic I came to the realization that there is perhaps a better way to think about the question, since Golems exist primarily in folklore and are not widespread as actual, physical artifacts (that I know of). However, the formation of the State of Israel in the aftermath of the destruction of the world that birthed the Golem-as-Protector suggests and illustrates a change in the way that Jews viewed protection and self-defense. Ideas of Jewish destiny had, in fact, been evolving over the centuries - from the eras of Emancipation and Enlightenment in the 18th Century (in which Jews entered non-Jewish societies for the first time as [supposedly] equal citizens of the nations in which they lived) through to the rise of political Zionism and Jewish nationalism in the late 19th Century and early 20th century (in which Jewish sovereignty in the form of returning to the Land of Israel after centuries of exile was seen as the only way to ensure the Jews' security and wellbeing). (7)
Second, in the course of researching this topic I came to the realization that there is perhaps a better way to think about the question, since Golems exist primarily in folklore and are not widespread as actual, physical artifacts (that I know of). However, the formation of the State of Israel in the aftermath of the destruction of the world that birthed the Golem-as-Protector suggests and illustrates a change in the way that Jews viewed protection and self-defense. Ideas of Jewish destiny had, in fact, been evolving over the centuries - from the eras of Emancipation and Enlightenment in the 18th Century (in which Jews entered non-Jewish societies for the first time as [supposedly] equal citizens of the nations in which they lived) through to the rise of political Zionism and Jewish nationalism in the late 19th Century and early 20th century (in which Jewish sovereignty in the form of returning to the Land of Israel after centuries of exile was seen as the only way to ensure the Jews' security and wellbeing). (7)
What I think is noteworthy about this shift is that it seems to have been driven by largely secular ways of seeing the world and the role of the Jewish people in that role, whereas I'd argue that the Golem emerged from a view of the world that was largely spiritual/religious in nature. Golem-making was done by sages deeply rooted in Jewish thought and kabbalah and was, of course, folkloric and metaphysical; the IDF and the State of Israel, on the other hand, were established mainly by secular Zionists, Jews who had decided forgo the religious prescript to wait for period of exile to come to an end with the return of the Messiah and instead took matters (and destiny) into their own hands. The Golem was folkloric and perhaps reflects a mindset - creating an instrument of defense while waiting for the larger Redemption to be brought by G-d - where the IDF and State of Israel are very tangible. The roots for both, however are the same - deeply grounded in Judaism, Jewish history and the Jewish outlook on the world - as is the overall goal of self-defense, but the philosophical underpinnings appear to be arguably different.
Since the establishment of the State of Israel and the Israel Defense Forces, discussions about the IDF as the "new Golem" of the Jewish people have taken several forms. Interestingly, the coloration of the Golem story with shades of both the benevolent (protective) and perilous persist when applied to the Israeli military power. Within this type of discourse, the Golem serves as a metaphor through to contemplate the point beyond which the protective defense provided by the IDF risks outgrowing the original purpose and values that it was established to defend, and the very real external threats that Israel faces. (8) Additionally, the Golem has made several appearances in graphic novels by Israeli writers, including in the work of Israeli graphic novelist Eli Eshed, and in those works the theme of protector manifests itself into a superhero narrative. (9)
Elsewhere in the world of literature, the Golem tale still caries a great deal of currency. Michael Chabon's The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Klay centers around the Golem of Prague in the context of World War II, and also incorporates the history of comic books in America and the Jewish immigrant experience of the early to mid 20th Century. The Golem of Prague is arguably the most famous of the Golem stories, and it exemplifies the Golem-as-protector idea. It was created to protect the Jewish community from the numerous external threats it faced, although the Golem's creator (Rabbi Judah Loew ben Betzalel) installed an emergency brake of sorts that could be used to stop the Golem if it began to run amok. The Golem was activated when the letters אמת (emet - "truth") were carved on his forehead, and when a slip of paper bearing the word שם (shem - "name" - a reference to the ineffable Name of Gd) was removed from his mouth. To deactivate the Golem, the first letter of אמת (emet) needed to be erased so that only מת (met - "dead") remained, and the slip of paper was reinserted. The Golem supposedly still rests in repose in its original home, the Altneu Shul in Prague's Jewish Quarter, which draws thousands of visitors each year.**
These pictures are from our trip to Prague back in 2012 - on the left is the Rabbi Loew's grave in the synagogue of Prague's Jewish Quarter, and on the right is the Altneue Shul (just a few steps away), where the Golem still lives to this day...
3. (Or, really, 2b) What relationship exists between the view of the Golem and the emergence of the Enlightenment and a swing towards the scientific vs. mystical view of the world and its origins?
Apparently, a pretty strong one. There are many examples in each Type of Golem story that warn about the dangers inherent in attempting to engage in the act of creation, no matter how benign or noble the purpose. As I mentioned above, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein was inspired by the Golem stories. At first I was really surprised to learn this, but then I thought about it some more and it makes a lot of sense. Frankenstein was published at around the same time that Golem stories were entering German and European discourse and literature, having migrated beyond the Jewish world through emerging sociologists, anthropologists and the like documenting the stories and sharing them with a broader audience. (10) This also coincided with the Enlightenment period in Europe, when modern approaches to scientific thought and inquiry were challenging the ways in which humanity had previously engaged with technology.
Since the establishment of the State of Israel and the Israel Defense Forces, discussions about the IDF as the "new Golem" of the Jewish people have taken several forms. Interestingly, the coloration of the Golem story with shades of both the benevolent (protective) and perilous persist when applied to the Israeli military power. Within this type of discourse, the Golem serves as a metaphor through to contemplate the point beyond which the protective defense provided by the IDF risks outgrowing the original purpose and values that it was established to defend, and the very real external threats that Israel faces. (8) Additionally, the Golem has made several appearances in graphic novels by Israeli writers, including in the work of Israeli graphic novelist Eli Eshed, and in those works the theme of protector manifests itself into a superhero narrative. (9)
Elsewhere in the world of literature, the Golem tale still caries a great deal of currency. Michael Chabon's The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Klay centers around the Golem of Prague in the context of World War II, and also incorporates the history of comic books in America and the Jewish immigrant experience of the early to mid 20th Century. The Golem of Prague is arguably the most famous of the Golem stories, and it exemplifies the Golem-as-protector idea. It was created to protect the Jewish community from the numerous external threats it faced, although the Golem's creator (Rabbi Judah Loew ben Betzalel) installed an emergency brake of sorts that could be used to stop the Golem if it began to run amok. The Golem was activated when the letters אמת (emet - "truth") were carved on his forehead, and when a slip of paper bearing the word שם (shem - "name" - a reference to the ineffable Name of Gd) was removed from his mouth. To deactivate the Golem, the first letter of אמת (emet) needed to be erased so that only מת (met - "dead") remained, and the slip of paper was reinserted. The Golem supposedly still rests in repose in its original home, the Altneu Shul in Prague's Jewish Quarter, which draws thousands of visitors each year.**
These pictures are from our trip to Prague back in 2012 - on the left is the Rabbi Loew's grave in the synagogue of Prague's Jewish Quarter, and on the right is the Altneue Shul (just a few steps away), where the Golem still lives to this day...
3. (Or, really, 2b) What relationship exists between the view of the Golem and the emergence of the Enlightenment and a swing towards the scientific vs. mystical view of the world and its origins?
Apparently, a pretty strong one. There are many examples in each Type of Golem story that warn about the dangers inherent in attempting to engage in the act of creation, no matter how benign or noble the purpose. As I mentioned above, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein was inspired by the Golem stories. At first I was really surprised to learn this, but then I thought about it some more and it makes a lot of sense. Frankenstein was published at around the same time that Golem stories were entering German and European discourse and literature, having migrated beyond the Jewish world through emerging sociologists, anthropologists and the like documenting the stories and sharing them with a broader audience. (10) This also coincided with the Enlightenment period in Europe, when modern approaches to scientific thought and inquiry were challenging the ways in which humanity had previously engaged with technology.
It is easy to imagine that a great deal of anxiety and trepidation accompanied what was no doubt a flourishing of ideas about the possibilities of science and reason; for that reason it's easy to see why a story like the Golem (a not-quite-human being created by humanity, that had the potential to both defend and overpower it) would find a new meaning among non-Jewish audiences. Instead of serving a benign role, however, Frankenstein's monster is the opposite. Shelley's story serves as a meditation on the risks and hubris involved in creating artificial intelligence and traversing the boundary between life/aliveness and death/deadness, and Dr. Frankenstein represents both the audacity of the human imagination and the arrogance of those who engage in such work yet ignore or underestimate the inherent risks.
These same themes continue to fascinate and occupy our imaginations today, and I believe that they will continue to do so as long as we struggle with the benefits and challenges posed by advances in technology and efforts to automate and re-create human behavior/humanity.
These same themes continue to fascinate and occupy our imaginations today, and I believe that they will continue to do so as long as we struggle with the benefits and challenges posed by advances in technology and efforts to automate and re-create human behavior/humanity.
**Additional Notes
One of the most fascinating things that I learned about the Golem story as we know it is that many of its singular elements - the Blood Libel accusation leveled against the Jews by their Christian neighbors, the persecution of the Jewish community by the anti-Semitic priest Thaddeus, etc - were inserted into the Golem tale by Rabbi Yudl Rosenberg, who was writing in Poland in the late 19th century. Anti-Jewish discrimination and violence was, to be sure, a factor of Jewish life for the Jews of Rabbi Loew's Prague, but there are no reported instances of the Blood Libel being leveled against the Jews of Prague during Rabbi Loew's time in Prague; they were, however, a staple of Eastern European Jewish life during Rosenberg's time. What's more, Rabbi Loew himself was not thought to have believed in magic or the occult. He was a learned scholar, however, and is thought to have discussed kabbalah and mysticism with the Holy Roman Emperor himself, thus positioning him well to be associated with Golem tales (in line with the requirement that only wise sages versed in kabbalah could create them). Golem Redux focuses attention on this fascinating theory behind how the Golem tale has arrived to us in most well-known form-picking up elements throughout history to reflect the realities of Jewish life in each contemporary time. (11)
Concluding Thoughts...
It's been really fun researching this topic. Exploring for the sake of exploration in this way is like combining all of the things I loved about academic research as a student without the pressure of publishing!
I've left some footnotes below giving some more information about the sources I referred to for this piece. Any errors are my own.
Because of the parameters I placed on myself for this blog, I had to cut this post off at a certain point and realized that there would be questions raised through the research process that I would not be able to address here. I fully welcome your thoughts on this post and on these other questions that came to mind, so please leave me a [constructive-if-not-positive] comment!
Some footnotes...
- I learned about about this source through a Torah on Tap series at a local synagogue- this most recent series focused on the mythical, fantastical and paranormal in Judaism, including but not limited to the Golem. (I found the above translation here).
- Another invaluable resource for this research was The Golem Redux: From Prague to Post-Holocaust History by Elizabeth R. Baer. This work focuses largely on the ways that Golem narratives have operated and morphed over the millennia, and was helpful in piecing together the distinctions I've noted between Golem stories within and beyond Jewish communities. Pg. 17-19.
- Ibid, Pg. 20.
- Ibid, Pg. 20-21.
- Ibid, Pg. 21-22.
- This categorization of types of Golem stories is, admittedly, incomplete as I am sure there are many other stories in contemporary literature that could also be included. The Golem Redux was a major source for many of these titles (Pgs. 20-31).
- The evolution of Jewish political theory as it relates to Jewish sovereignty is a really fascinating one, and one that I did not have space for within the confines of this particular topic. I'll leave the history of the Jewish people that to the masters - Max I. Dimont's Jews, God and History first opened my eyes to how dramatic and bad-ass Jewish history is, and Simon Schama's documentary series "The Story of the Jews" captures that same drama in striking visual detail. I also recommend Ruth R. Wisse's Jews and Power for the way it delves into a multi-layered topic deftly and forcefully. I am working my way through it, and am also utilizing it for my next blog topic. So stay tuned! :)
- This article in the Jerusalem Post, and this article in Ha'aretz, uses the Golem metaphor to different but equally illustrative effect. I don't necessarily ascribe to either viewpoint, but I think that it's interesting to see how the ideas behind the Golem story are applied in different ways to the IDF.
- You can learn more about Eli Eshed and his Golem comic here and here.
- The Golem Redux. Pgs. 26-28.
- Ibid, Pgs. 30-31.
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